| Unit 1: Neurophysiology – Sensibility
1.1. Sensory systems
Sensory receptors
• Receiver potential (sensor )
• Receiver customization
• Tonic and phasic receptors
Neural sensory pathways
• Sensory neuron
• Special and non-special roads
Sensory cortex of the brain
Coding of stimulus features
• Quality-type of the stimulus
• Intensity of the stimulus
• Locating the stimulus – Lateral (lateral) inhibition
• Duration of the stimulus
1.2. Physical sensibility
Bodily sensations
• Definition
• Receptors
Touch-Pressure-Vibration
• Cutaneous mechanoreceptors
– The Merkel disks
– The Meissner particles
– The Ruffini endings
-The Pacinian corpuscles
• Sensory signal generation by skin mechanoreceptors
• Rapidly adapting cutaneous mechanoreceptors
• Slowly adapting cutaneous mechanoreceptors
• Aesthetic discernment
Ownership
• Receptors
• Impaired proprioception
• Subconscious proprioception
Ascending tracts for the sense of touch-pressure-vibration (posterior bundles)
Pain
• Pain receptors (nociceptors)
-Transient potential receptor channels
-Acid-stimulated receptors
-Purinergic receptors
-Receptor tyrosine kinase A
-Receptors that mediate pain due to inflammation
• Ascending pathways of pain
• Trigeminal nerve
• Slow and fast pain
• Chronic pain
• Hyperalgesia & allodynia
• Superficial & deep pain
• Projected pain
• Pain modulation systems
• Cationic pain modulating systems
• Gate control theory
Itching
Hot-cold sensation
• Thermoreceptors
• Neural pathways for temperature
Somatotopic organization of the aesthetic pathway
Primary somatosensory cortex
• Organization of primary sensory cortex
Supplementary somatosensory cortex
1.3. Vision
Properties of waves - Visible light
Anatomical elements of the eye
Refraction of light on its way to the retina
Near vision adaptation mechanism
Refractive abnormalities
Aqueous fluid and vitreous body
Retina – histological evidence
Conversion of the light stimulus into a nerve signal-photoreceptors
Color vision (cone)
Adaptation to light & dark
Central and peripheral vision
Bipolar cells
Sensory fields of bipolar cells
Electrical response of bipolar & horizontal cells
Description of the neuronal circuitry in center-periphery field generation in bipolar cells
Electrical response of amygdala and ganglion cells
Sensory fields of ganglion cells
Color contrast cells
Differentiation of ganglion cells based on their morphology and function
Optical path
Visual fields
Innervation of the pupil of the umbilicus by the ANS
Optical light reflex (direct-indirect)
Outside kneeling body
Pathways from the external angular to the primary visual cortex
Primary visual cortex
Secondary visual cortex
Depth perception
Eye movement
1.4. Hearing
Sound waves
Description of the function of the outer, middle and inner ear, description of the structures with the help of which sound energy is transmitted to the receptors
Explanation of frequency analysis in the cochlea based on its physical properties
Explain how basement membrane vibrations are converted into action potentials in the auditory nerve
Diagram of the auditory pathway including the central structures
Discriminating sound frequency and loudness, locating sound direction
1.5. Hall System
Description of the structure, physiological stimulus, receptor-level signal transduction and function of the semicircular tubules
Description of the structure, physiological stimulus, receptor-level signal transduction and function of the globular and elliptical vesicle
Description of the central connections of the vestibular nerve and relation to the three main functions of the vestibular apparatus
• Vestibular nerve
• Vestibular nuclei
• Connections of vestibular nuclei
1.6. Chemical Senses (Smell and Taste)
Description of olfactory receptors and the mechanisms of stimulus conversion
Description of the olfactory pathways
Description of taste receptors and the mechanisms of stimulus conversion
Description of taste pathways
1.7. Recap of Unit 1 – Physiology based on medical cases
Unit 2: Neurophysiology – Movement
2.1. Organization of the motor system
Kinetic systems
Hierarchy of motor control
2.2 Movement planning – Cortex
Information flow diagram of the different brain regions involved in planning, initiating and executing skilled voluntary movements
Motor cortex
Corticospinal & corticospinal tract
2.3. Organization of Movement at the Level of the Spinal Cord (NM)
Organization NM-motor unit
Muscle length detection system: Muscle spindle
• Co-activation of α and γ motor neurons
• Descending pathways to a & c motor neurons
Control of the myotatic reflex by central pathways
Inverse myotatic reflex – Tendon corpuscle (Golgi)
Retractable Retractable – Retractable Retractable Cross-Reflector
Postural reflexes (balance maintenance)
Kinetic programs (standards) NM
Spinal cord injury
2.4.Brain stem pathways involved in voluntary movement and body posture
Medial and lateral motor systems
Effects on movement
2.5. Basal ganglia
Basal basal ganglia circuit, direct and indirect pathway
Role of substantia nigra, hypothalamic nucleus and cholinergic neurons in basal ganglia circuitry
The tolus of the basal ganglia in motion
Diseases associated with damage to the basal ganglia
2.6. Cerebellum
Anatomical - histological data
Functional dissection of the cerebellum.
Description of the afferent and efferent pathways in each of these segments and their relationship to the lateral and medial motor control systems
Organization of the cerebellar cortex
Circuitry of the cerebellar cortex, functional role of each type of neuron involved
Functions of the cerebellum – The role of the cerebellum in the regulation of skilled movements
Neurological disorders resulting from damage to the various areas of the cerebellum
2.7. Chamber
Functions of the ward
2.8. Recap of Unit 2 – Physiology based on medical cases
Unit 3: Neurophysiology – Higher Brain Functions
3.1. Cerebral cortex
Organization of the cerebral cortex
Associative areas of the brain
• Frontal lobe: Behavior-motivation
• Parieto-temporal-occipital region: functions-areas of the brain involved in the recognition of personal and extra-personal space
• Limb system
– Functions of the limbic system
– Feeling
– Almond
3.2. Language
Cortical areas involved in language
Nonsense
Main differences in the function of the two hemispheres in humans
Midlobe cross section
3.3. Find other functions
Face recognition
Areas of the brain associated with numerical calculations
Areas related to orientation
3.4. Learning and memory
Definition and relationship of learning and memory
Effect of Environment on Memory
Factors affecting learning effectiveness
Areas of the brain that appear to be involved in memory and the role each likely plays in memory and information storage
Forms of memory
• Explicit memory (declarative)
• Implicit memory (procedural)
• Unconditioned learning: addiction and awareness
• Dependent Learning
Memory partitioning by duration:
• Aesthetic memory – Short-term memory – Long-term memory
Neural Mechanisms of Learning & Memory in Mammals
Plasticity of neuronal circuits in the brain
Long Term Potentiation
Long Term Depression
3.5. Electrical activity of the brain, Sleep-Wakefulness, Circadian rhythms
EEG
Sleep – wakefulness – stages of sleep
Neurobiology of sleep
Circadian rhythms
Unit 4: Physiology of the Endocrine System
4.1. Hypothalamus & Pituitary
The hypothalamic-pituitary functional unit
Regulation of hormone secretion by the hypothalamus
Hormones of the Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary
Oxytocin (OXT): action and control of secretion
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): action, regulation of secretion and disorders
Control of the function of the Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary by the Hypothalamus
Hypophysiotropic hormones: Synthesis, transport and action
Reflex control of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis
Anterior Pituitary Hormones: Purposes & Main Functions
Pituitary insufficiency
Prolactin
4.2. Hormonal Regulation of Development
Factors affecting growth
Growth Hormone (GH)
• Mechanism of action of GH
• Metabolic Actions of Growth Hormone
• Actions of Growth Hormone on Growth
• Factors affecting GH secretion
• Feedback control of GH secretion
• Secretion of GH in pulses
Insulin-mimetic Growth Factor I (IGF-I)
Effect of Growth Hormone & IGF-I on Bone Connective Cartilage
Disorders in GH & IGF-I secretion
Effect of other hormones on growth
4.3. Pineal gland and Circadian rhythms
Pineal gland and melatonin
Circadian rhythms
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
• Information about the light-dark cycle via a special retinohypothalamic fiber pathway
• Regulates circadian rhythms through the CNS
SNC, Pineal gland and Circadian rhythms
Melatonin: regulation of secretion and actions
4.4. Thyroid gland
Characteristics, structure and hormones of the Thyroid Gland
Iodine homeostasis
Synthesis & secretion of thyroid hormones
Circulation of thyroid hormones in the blood
Regulation of the secretion of Thyroid Hormones
Effect of Thyrotropin (TSH) on the Thyroid
Mechanism of action of thyroid hormones
Relative biological significance of T3 and T4
Effect of Thyroid Hormones on Metabolic Rate, Thermogenesis, Catecholamine Action, and Growth
Thyroid disorders
• Hyperthyroidism
• Hypothyroidism
4.5. Adrenal glands
Functional anatomy of the adrenal glands
The hormones of the adrenal medulla
• Synthesis, Storage, Secretion & Metabolism of Brain Hormones
• Action of Marrow Hormones
• Regulation of adrenal medulla secretion
• Epinephrine
The hormones of the adrenal cortex
Synthesis of steroid hormones
• Cortisol
- Transport and metabolism of cortisol
-Actions of glucocorticoids
- Regulation of cortisol secretion
-Treatment with synthetic glucocorticoids
• Aldosterone
-Actions of the saltocorticoids
- Regulation of Aldosterone secretion
Disorders in the Function of the Adrenal Cortex
Hormonal Response to Intensity
• Fight or flight response
4.6. The Parathyroid Glands and Vitamin D: Hormonal Regulation of Calcium and Phosphorus, Bone Physiology
Regulation of body calcium homeostasis and balance
The phosphate anion (PO43-)
Bone functions
Bone formation and resorption
Parathyroid glands
Parathormone
• Regulation of parathormone secretion
• Actions of parathormone
Vitamin D
• Vitamin D synthesis, metabolism and deficiency
• Actions of vitamin D
Calcitonin
Disorders of calcium and phosphate homeostasis
Metabolic bone diseases
4.7. Endocrine functions of the pancreas
Exocrine and endocrine fate of the pancreas
Cells and hormones of the islets of Langerhans
Insulin
• Synthesis of insulin
• Circulation and target tissues of insulin
• Regulation of insulin secretion
• Factors affecting insulin secretion
• Induction of insulin secretion by glucose
• Actions of insulin
Glucagon
• Factors that regulate glucagon secretion
• Liver glucagon action
Hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia
Diabetes mellitus
4.8. Hormonal regulation of carbohydrate metabolism and body energy balance
Endocrine control of the absorptive and postabsorptive phase
Effect of nutritional status on insulin & glucagon levels
Comprehensive control of plasma glucose concentration
4.9. Recap of Unit 4 – Physiology based on medical cases
Unit 5: Physiology of Reproduction
5.1. Gender differentiation and development
Determination of gender
Gender differentiation
Main reproductive organs
Auxiliary organs of reproduction
Secondary sex characteristics
Hormones that control reproductive function
Developmental stages of reproductive function
5.2. Reproductive physiology of the male
The male reproductive organs
Functional anatomy of the testes
• Sertoli cells
• Leydig cells
• Spermatogenesis
• Sperm transfer
• Hormonal control of testicular function
5.3. Reproductive physiology of the female
The reproductive organs of the female
Oogenesis
Follicle Development
Formation of corpus luteum
Ovarian hormones
Hormonal control of ovarian function
• Follicular phase
• LH tidal wave and ovulation
• Luteal phase
Uterine changes in the menstrual cycle
• Production phase
• Secretory phase
• Menstrual phase
Estrogen effects
Effects of progesterone
5.4. Fertilization - Pregnancy - Lactation
Egg transfer
Transfer of sperm and acquisition of competence
Fertilization
Early growth and implantation
Creation and function of the placenta
Hormonal changes during pregnancy
Birth
Lactation
Laboratory Exercises
Exercise 1: Reflexes – Neurological examination
Brief description of the neurological examination (History - General examination - Higher mental functions - speech - Gait - Motor system - Sensory system - Synergy - Cerebellar system - Abnormal movements - reflexes - coma)
Examination of myotatic reflexes in the laboratory
Exercise 2: Electroencephalogram (EEG) – Epilepsy
Technique and methodology of electroencephalographic recording
Rhythms recorded on the EEG
The EEG in the different forms of epilepsy (Video)
Exercise 3: Reproduction
Discussion of a clinical case
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